Silverware

Household silver or silverware (the silver, the Plate, or silver service) includes tableware, cutlery, and other household items made of sterling silver, silver-gilt, Britannia silver, or Sheffield plate silver. Silver is sometimes bought in sets or combined to form clusters, such as a set of silver candlesticks or a silver tea set.

Historically, silverware was divided into table silver for eating and dressing silver for bedrooms and dressing rooms. The grandest form of the latter was the toilet service, typically of 10-30 pieces, often silver-gilt, which was predominantly a feature of the period from 1650 to about 1780.

 

Elites in most ancient cultures preferred to eat off precious metals ("plate") at the table; China and Japan were two significant exceptions, using lacquerware and later fine pottery, mainly porcelain. In Europe, the elites dined off metal, usually silver for the rich and pewter or latten for the middling classes, from the ancient Greeks and Romans until the 18th century. Another alternative was the trencher, a large flat piece of either bread or wood. In the Middle Ages, this was a common way of serving food, the bread also being eaten; even in elite dining, it was not entirely replaced in France until the 1650s.[1]

 

The Vyborgian coffee pot from the 18th century is displayed in the National Museum of Finland.

Possession of silverware depends on individual wealth; the more influential the means, the higher the quality of tableware owned and the more numerous its pieces. Sumptuary laws often controlled the materials used. In the late Middle Ages and for much of the Early Modern period, much of a great person's disposable assets were often on Plate, and what was not in use for a given meal was often displayed on a dresser de parement or buffet (indeed, similar to a large Welsh dresser) in the dining hall. At the wedding of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and Isabella of Portugal in 1429, there was a dresser 20 feet long on either side of the room, each with five rows of Plate. Inventories of King Charles V of France (r. 1364–1380) record that he had 2,500 pieces of Plate. The Plate was often melted down to finance wars or building, and hardly any of the enormous quantities recorded in the later Middle Ages survived. The French Royal Gold Cup now in the British Museum, in solid gold and decorated with enamel and pearls, is one of few exceptions.

 

Silver requires a good deal of care, as it tarnishes and must be hand polished since careless or machine polishing ruins the patina and can ultimately erode the silver layer in Sheffield plate.

A Silverman or silver butler has the expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use, and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware, and other paraphernalia for military and other special functions. This expertise covers the maintenance, cleaning, proper use, and presentation of these assets to create aesthetically correct layouts for a compelling ambiance at such splendid occasions. The role of Silverman tends now to be restricted to some private houses and large organizations, in particular the military.

One advantage of silverware is that the oligodynamic effect inhibits the growth of bacteria.

 

Tableware is any dish or dishware used for setting the table, serving food, and dining. It includes cutlery, glassware, serving dishes, and other items for practical and decorative purposes. The quality, nature, variety, and many objects vary according to culture, religion, the number of diners, cuisine, and occasion. For example, Middle Eastern, Indian or Polynesian food culture and cuisine sometimes limit tableware to serving dishes, using bread or leaves as individual plates. Special occasions are usually reflected in higher-quality tableware.

Cutlery is usually known as silverware or flatware in the United States. Cutlery usually means knives and related cutting instruments; elsewhere, cutlery includes all the forks, spoons, and other silverware items. Outside the US, flatware is a term for "open-shaped" dishware items such as plates, dishes, and bowls (as opposed to "closed" shapes like jugs and vases). Dinnerware is another term used to refer to tableware. Crockery refers to ceramic tableware, often porcelain or bone china. Sets of dishes are table service, dinner service, or service set. Table settings or place settings are the dishes, cutlery, and glassware used for formal and informal dining. In Ireland, such items are typically referred to as delph, the word being an English phonetic spelling of the word delft, the town from which so much delftware came. Silver service or butler service are methods for a butler or waiter to serve a meal.

Setting the table refers to arranging the tableware, including individual place settings for each diner at the table, and decorating the table itself in a manner suitable for the occasion. Tableware and table decoration is typically more elaborate for special events. Unusual dining locations demand tableware be adapted.

 

In recent centuries, flatware is usually made of pottery, ceramic materials such as earthenware, stoneware, bone china, or porcelain. The triumph of ceramics is probably due to the spread of ceramic glazes, which were slow to develop in Europe; without the glassy surface they give pottery tableware may be less hygienic. Silverware can be made of other materials such as wood, pewter, latten, silver, gold, glass, acrylic, and plastic. It was fashioned from available materials before it was possible to purchase mass-produced tableware, such as wood. Industrialization and developments in ceramic manufacture made inexpensive washable silver available. It is sold either by the piece or as a matched set for several diners, usually four, six, eight, or twelve place settings. Large quantities are purchased for use in restaurants. Individual pieces, such as those needed as replacement pieces for broken dishes, can be procured from "open-stock" inventory at shops or antique dealers if the pattern is no longer in production.

Cutlery is generally made of metal, though large pieces such as ladles for serving may be of wood.

 

The earliest pottery in cultures worldwide does not seem to have included flatware, concentrating on pots and jars for storage and cooking. Wood does not survive well in most places, and archaeology has found few wooden plates and dishes from prehistory. They may have been expected once the tools to fashion them were available.

Ancient elites in most cultures preferred flatware in precious metals ("plate") at the table; China and Japan were two significant exceptions, using lacquerware and later fine pottery, mainly porcelain. In China, bowls have always been preferred to plates. In Europe, pewter was often used by the less well-off, the poor, and silver or gold by the rich. Religious considerations influenced the choice of materials. Muhammad spoke against using gold at the table, as the contemporary elites of Persia and the Byzantine Empire did, and this greatly encouraged the growth of Islamic pottery. On the other hand, Hindus avoided eating off pottery[why?].

In Europe, the elites dined off metal, usually silver for the rich and pewter for the middling classes, from the ancient Greeks and Romans until the 18th century. The trencher was a large flat piece of either bread or wood. In the Middle Ages, this was a common way of serving food. The bread was also being eaten; even in elite dining, it was not entirely replaced in France until the 1650s,[5] although in Italy, maiolica was used from the 15th century. Orders survive for extensive services. At an Este family wedding feast in Ferrara in 1565, 12,000 plates painted with the Este arms were used, though the "top table" probably ate off precious metal.

Possession of tableware has primarily been determined by individual wealth; the more critical the means, the higher the quality of dishes owned and the more numerous its pieces. Sumptuary laws often controlled the materials used. In the late Middle Ages and much of the Early Modern period, much of a great person's disposable assets were often in "plates" vessels. Tableware in precious metal and what was not in use for a given meal was often displayed on a dressoir de parement or buffet (similar to a large Welsh dresser) against the wall in the dining hall. At the wedding of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and Isabella of Portugal in 1429, there was a dresser 20 feet long on either side of the room, each with five rows of plates; a similar display on three dressers could be seen at the State Banquet in Buckingham Palace for President Donald J. Trump in 2019. Inventories of King Charles V of France (r. 1364–1380) record that he had 2,500 pieces of Plate.

The Plate was often melted down to finance wars or building, or until the 19th century, just for remaking in a more fashionable style. None of the enormous quantities recorded in the later Middle Ages survives. The French Royal Gold Cup now in the British Museum, in solid gold and decorated with enamel and pearls, is one of few secular exceptions. It was perhaps passed around for ceremonial toasts, weighing more than two kilos. Another is the much plainer English silver Lacock Cup, which has survived as it was bequeathed to a church early on for use as a chalice.

The same is true for French silver from the 150 years before the French Revolution, when French styles, either originals or local copies, were used by all the courts of Europe. London silversmiths came a long way behind but were the other leading exporters. French silver now survives almost entirely in the form of exported pieces, like the Germain Service for the King of Portugal.

 

A c. 1785-90 Chinese export porcelain dinner service for the American market

In London in the 13th century, the more affluent citizens owned fine furniture and silver, "while those of straiter means possessed only the simplest pottery and kitchen utensils." By the later 16th century, "even the poorer citizens dined off pewter rather than wood" and had Plate, jars, and pots made from "green glazed earthenware." The nobility often used their arms on heraldic china.

The final replacement of silver tableware with porcelain as the norm in aristocratic French dining had taken place by the 1770s.[12] After this, the enormous development of European porcelain and cheaper fine earthenwares like faience and creamware, as well as the resumption of large imports of Chinese export porcelain, often armorial porcelain decorated to order, led to matching "china" services becoming affordable by an ever-wider public. By 1800 cheap versions of these were often brightly decorated with transfer printing in blue and were beginning to be reasonable by the better-off working-class household. Until the mid-19th century, the American market was primarily served by imports from Britain, with some from China and the European continent.

The introduction of hot drinks, mostly but not only tea and coffee, as a regular feature of eating and entertaining, led to a new class of tableware. In its most common material, various types of pottery, this is often called teaware. It developed in the late 17th century, and for some time, the serving pots, milk jugs, and sugar bowls were often in silver, while the cups and saucers were ceramic, often in Chinese export porcelain or its Japanese equivalent. By the mid-18th century, matching sets of European "china" were usual for all the vessels, although these often did not include plates for the cake, etc., until the next century. Instead, this move to local china was delayed by the tendency of some early types of European soft-paste porcelain to break if a too-hot liquid was poured into it.

 

The knife is much the oldest type of cutlery; the individual usually carried early ones. Forks and spoons came later and were initially only for the wealthy, who typically brought their set. After the Romans, who made great use of utensils, joined by forks later,[14] there were only knives and perhaps wooden spoons for most of the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, hosts among the elite again began to lay cutlery at the table. However, at an Italian banquet in 1536 for Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, it is recorded that a knife, spoon, and fork were a rarity. The table fork was revived in Italy in the 16th century and was described for his English readers by Thomas Coryat in the 1590s as "not used in any other country that I saw in my travels." In England and France, it only became common after the 1660s, even in the court of Louis XIV, and for a while seems to have mainly been used by ladies, and for incredibly messy food, like fruits in syrup.

 

Tableware is generally the functional part of the settings on dining tables. Still, great attention has been paid to the purely decorative aspects, especially when dining is regarded as part of the entertainment, such as in banquets given by important people or special events, such as State occasions. Table decoration may be ephemeral and consist of items made from confectionery or wax - substances commonly employed in Roman banqueting tables of the 17th century. During the reign of George III of the United Kingdom, ephemeral table decoration was done by men known as "table-deckers" who used sand and similar substances to create marmot into works (sand painting) for single-use decoration. In modern times, ephemeral table decorations continue to be made from sugar or carved from ice.

The porcelain figurine began in early 18th-century Germany as a permanent replacement for sugar sculptures on the dining table.

In wealthy countries such as 17th century France, table decorations for the aristocracy were sometimes made of silver. One of the most famous table decorations is the Cellini Salt Cellar. Ephemeral and silver table decorations were replaced with porcelain items after their reinvention in Europe in the 16th century.

 

A table setting in Western countries is mainly in one of two styles: service à la russe (French for "in the Russian style"), where each course of the meal is brought out in specific order; and service à la française (French for "in the French style"), where all the courses for the meal are arranged on the table and presented at the same time that guests are seated. Service à la russe has become the custom in most restaurants, whereas service à la française is the norm in family settings.

Place settings for service à la russe dining are arranged according to the number of courses in the meal. The tableware is organized in a particular order. With the first course, each guest at the table begins by using the china placed outside the place setting. As each orbit is finished, the guest leaves the used cutlery on the used Plate or bowl, removed from the table by the server. In some cases, the original set is kept for the next course. To begin the next period, the diner uses the next item on the outside of the place setting, and so on. Forks are placed on the left of a dinner plate, knives to the right of the Plate, and spoons to the outer right side of the place setting.

 

Items of tableware include a variety of plates, bowls, or cups for individual diners and a range of serving dishes to transport the food from the kitchen or separate smaller containers. Plates include charge plates and specific dinner plates, lunch plates, dessert plates, salad plates, or side plates. Bowls include soup, cereal, pasta, fruit, or dessert. A range of saucers accompanies plates and bowls, designed to go with teacups, coffee cups, demitasses, and cream soup bowls. There are also individual-covered casserole dishes.

Dishes come in standard sizes, which are set according to the manufacturer. They are similar throughout the industry. Plates are standardized in descending order of diameter size according to function. One standard series is a charger (12 inches); dinner plate (10.5 inches); dessert plate (8.5 inches), salad plate (7.5 inches); side plate, tea plate (6.75 inches).

 

Glasses and mugs of various types are essential for tableware, as beverages are imperative parts of a meal. Vessels to hold alcoholic beverages such as red, white, or sparkling wine tend to be quite specialized in form. For example, Port wine glasses, beer glasses, brandy balloons, aperitif, and liqueur glasses all have different shapes. Water glasses, juice glasses, and hot chocolate mugs are also differentiated. Their appearance as part of the tableware depends on the meal and the style of table arrangement.

Tea and coffee tend to involve intense social rituals. So teacups and coffee cups (including demitasse cups) have a shape that depends on the culture and the social situation in which the drink is taken.

 

Cutlery is an integral part of tableware. A basic formal place setting will usually have a dinner plate at the center, resting on a charger. The rest of the place setting depends upon the first course, soup, salad, or fish.

• If soup is the first course, to the left of the dinner plate, moving clockwise, are placed a small salad fork on the left of the dinner plate; a large dinner fork to the left of the salad fork; a side plate above the divisions; a wine or water glass above and to the right of the dinner plate; a large dinner knife to the right of the dinner plate; a smaller butter knife to the right of the dinner knife; a dinner spoon to the right of the blades; a soup spoon to the right of the dinner spoon.
• If salad is the first course, the soup spoon is skipped. The dinner fork is immediately left off the dinner plate; the salad fork is placed on the outer left side of the place setting.

The napkin may rest folded underneath the forks or be folded and placed on the dinner plate in either arrangement.

When more courses are being served, place settings may become more elaborate and cutlery more specialized. Examples include fruit spoons or fruit knives, cheese knives, and pastry forks. Other types of cutlery, such as boning forks, were used when formal meals included dishes that have become less common. Carving knives and forks are used to carve roasts at the table.

 

A wide range of serving dishes are used to transport food from kitchen to table or at the table to make foodservice more straightforward and cleaner or more efficient and pleasant. Serving dishes include butter dishes; casseroles, fruit bowls; ramekins or lidded serving bowls; compotes; pitchers or jugs; platters, salvers, and trays; salt and pepper shakers or salt cellars; sauce or gravy boats; tureens and tajines; vegetable or salad bowls.

A range of items specific to the serving of tea or coffee also has long cultural traditions. They include teapots, coffee pots and samovars, sugar bowls, and milk or cream jugs.

 

Chinese table settings are traditional in style. In Japan and other East Asia, Chinese table setting customs have influenced table setting practices. The emphasis in Chinese table settings is pleasingly displaying each food, usually in separate bowls or dishes. Formal table settings are based upon the arrangements used in a family setting, although they can become highly elaborate with many words. Serving bowls and plates are brought to the table, where guests can choose their portions. Formal Chinese restaurants often use a large turning wheel in the center of the table to rotate the food for more straightforward service.

In a family setting, a meal typically includes a fan dish, which constitutes the meal's base (much like bread forms the base of various sandwiches), and several accompanying mains, called cat dish (Choi or young in Cantonese). The fan usually refers to cooked rice, but it can also be other staple grain-based foods. If the meal is light, it will typically include the base and one main dish. The bottom is often served directly to the guest in a bowl, whereas the guest chooses the main dishes from shared serving dishes on the table.

 

An "elaborate" formal meal would include the following place setting:[22]

• Centre plate, about 6 inches in diameter
• Rice bowl, placed to the right of the center plate
• A small cup of tea is placed above the Plate or rice bowl
• Chopsticks to the right of the center plate, on a chopstick rest
• A long-handled spoon on a spoon rest placed to the left of the chopsticks
• Small condiment dishes, placed above the center plate
• Soup bowl, set to the left above the center plate
• A soup spoon, inside the soup bowl

 

Japanese ceramic tableware is an industry that is many centuries old. Unlike in Western cultures, where tableware is often produced and bought in matching sets, Japanese tableware is set on the table so that each dish complements the type of food served in it. Since Japanese meals typically include several small amounts of each food per person, each person has a place setting with several different small dishes and bowls for holding individual food and condiments. The emphasis in a Japanese table setting is on enhancing the appearance of the food, which is partially achieved by showing contrasts between the items. Each bowl and dish may have a different shape, color, or pattern.

 

An essential complete place setting for one person in Japan would include the following:[25]

• Hot noodle bowl
• Rice bowl
• Soup bowl
• Two to three shallow 3- to 5-inch diameter dishes
• Two to three 3- to 5-inch diameter, 1- to 3-inch-deep bowls
• Two square or rectangular pieces traditionally served for serving fish
• Three 2- to 3-inch diameter condiment plates
• Cold noodle tray with bamboo strainer
• Dipping sauce cup
• Chopsticks and chopstick rest

 

Not all of these plates and bowls would be necessary for one meal. A rice bowl, a soup bowl, two or three small dishes with accompanying foods, and two or three condiment dishes for a person would be typical. Various serving bowls and platters would also be set on a table for a specific meal, a soy sauce cruet, a minor pitcher for tempura or other sauce, and a tea set of teapot teacups and teacup saucers.

 

Tableware for exceptional circumstances has to be adapted. For example, it was dining outdoors, whether for recreational purposes, as on a picnic, or as part of a journey, project, or mission requiring specialized tableware. It must be portable, robust, and lighter than tableware used indoors. It is usually carefully packed for transportation to where it will be used.

 

Cutlery includes any hand implement used in preparing, serving, and especially eating food in Western culture. A person who makes or sells cutlery is called a cutler. The city of Sheffield in England has been famous for producing cutlery since the 17th century, and a train – Master Cutler – running from Sheffield to London was named after the industry. Stainless steel was developed in Sheffield in the early 20th century, bringing affordable cutlery to the masses.

Cutlery is usually known as silverware or flatware in the United States, where cutlery can have the more specific meaning of knives and other cutting instruments[citation needed]. Although the term silverware is used irrespective of the material composition of the utensils, the term tableware has come into use to avoid the implication that they are made of silver.

The essential cutlery items in Western culture are the knife, fork, and spoon. These three implements first appeared together on tables in Britain in the Georgian era. In recent times, hybrid versions of cutlery have been made, combining the functionality of different eating implements, including the spork (spoon/fork), spife (spoon/knife), and knork (knife/fork). The spoof or splade combines all three.

 

The word cutler derives from the Middle English word 'cutlery' and this, in turn, derives from Old French' outlier, which comes from 'coutel,' meaning knife (modern French: couteau). The word's early origins can be seen in the Latin word 'culture' (knife).

 

Sterling silver is the traditional material from which good quality cutlery is made. Historically, silver had the advantage over other metals of being less chemically reactive. Chemical reactions between certain foods and the cutlery metal can lead to unpleasant tastes. Gold is even less reactive than silver, but the use of gold cutlery was confined to the exceptionally wealthy, such as monarchs.

Steel was always used for more utilitarian knives, and pewter was used for some cheaper items, especially spoons. From the nineteenth century, electroplated nickel silver (EPNS) was used as a cheaper substitute for sterling silver.

In 1913, the British metallurgist Harry Brearley discovered stainless steel by chance, bringing affordable cutlery to the masses. This metal has come to be the predominant one used in cutlery. An alternative is Melchior, a corrosion-resistant nickel and copper alloy, which can also sometimes contain manganese and nickel-iron.

 

Plastic cutlery is made for disposable use and is frequently used outdoors for camping, excursions, and barbecues. Plastic cutlery is also commonly used at fast-food or take-away outlets and provides airline meals in economy class. Plastic is also used for children's cutlery. It is often thicker and more durable than disposable plastic cutlery.

 

 

Wooden disposable cutlery is available as a popular biodegradable alternative. Bamboo (although not a plank of wood) and maple are popular choices.

 

Edible cutlery is made from dried grains. These are made primarily with rice, millets, or wheat. Since rice cultivation needs much water, manufacturers market millet-based products more environmentally friendly. The batter is baked in molds which hardens it. Some manufacturers offer an option of flavored cutlery. Edible cutlery decomposes in about a week if disposed of.

 

At Sheffield, the cutler trade became divided, with allied trades such as razor maker, awlbladesmith, shearsmith, and forkmaker emerging and becoming different trades by the 18th century.

Before the mid 19th century, when cheap mild steel became available due to new methods of steelmaking, knives (and other edged tools) were made by welding a strip of steel onto the piece of iron that was to be formed into a knife or sandwiching a strip of steel between two pieces of iron. This was done because steel was a much more expensive commodity than iron. Modern blades are sometimes laminated, but for a different reason. Since the most demanding steel is brittle, a layer of hard steel may be laid between two layers of a milder, less brittle steel for a blade that keeps a sharp edge well and is less likely to break in service.

After fabrication, the knife had to be sharpened, initially on a grindstone, but from the late medieval period in a blade mill or (as they were known in the Sheffield region) a cutler's wheel.

 

Introduced for convenience purposes (lightweight, no cleanup after the meal required), disposable cutlery made of plastic has become a vast worldwide market. These products have become essential for the fast food and catering industry and other disposable tableware (paper plates, plastic table covers, disposable cups, paper napkins, etc.). These products have become essential for the fast food and catering industry. The products are emblematic of throw-away societies and cause millions of tons of non-biodegradable plastic waste. The European Union has banned such plastic products from 3 July 2021 as part of the European Plastics Strategy. Bans are also planned in the UK and Canada.

 

As an eco-friendly alternative to non-degradable plastic, wooden cutlery is gaining popularity. Some manufacturers coat their products in food-safe plant oils, waxes, and lemon juice for a longer shelf life making these safe for human consumption. Cutlery is then cured for a few days before leaving the manufacturing plant.

 

Edible cutlery is gaining popularity as an eco-friendly alternative to non-decomposing plastic. Based in Hyderabad, India, Bakey's is a famous edible cutlery manufacturer established by a former scientist. Bakey's millet-based dough is poured into metallic molds and baked at 280 °C (540 °F) for about 28 minutes which hardens it. 

 

Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by weight of silver and 7.5% by weight of other metals, usually copper. The sterling silver standard has a minimum millesimal fineness of 925.

 

Tiffany & Co. pitcher. c. 1871. The pitcher has paneled sides and a repoussé design with shells, scrolls, and flowers. The top edge is a repousse arrowhead leaf design.

 

A Macedonian sterling silver Hanukkah menorah.

 

A Chinese export sterling silver punch bowl, c. 1875 (from the Huntington Museum of Art).

Fine silver, for example, 99.9% pure silver, is relatively soft, so silver is usually alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and strength. Sterling silver is prone to tarnishing, and elements other than copper can be used in alloys to reduce tarnishing, cast porosity, and firescale. Such features include germanium, zinc, platinum, silicon, and boron. Recent examples of these alloys include Argentium, stellium, Sterilite, and silvadium.

 

One of the earliest attestations of the term is in Old French form esterlin, in a charter of the abbey of Les Préaux, dating to either 1085 or 1104. The English chronicler Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c. 1142) uses the Latin forms libræ sterilensium and libræ sterilensis monetæ. The word in origin refers to the newly introduced Norman silver penny.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the most plausible etymology derives from a late Old English sterling (with (or like) a 'little star'), as some early Norman pennies were imprinted with a small star.

Another argument is that the Hanseatic League was the source for both the origin of its definition and manufacture, and in its name, the German word for the Baltic is Ostsee, or 'East Sea.' The Baltic merchants were called "Osterlings" or "Easterlings." In 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. Because the League's money was not frequently debased like England's, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, which was contracted to sterling. And land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. The Hanseatic League was officially active in the London trade from 1266 to 1597. Walter de Pinchebek (ca. 1300) may have first suggested this etymology, explaining that moneyers originally made the coin from that region. The claim has also been made in Henry Spelman's glossary (Glossarium Archaiologicum) as referenced in Commentaries on the Laws of England by William Blackstone. Yet another claim on this same hypothesis is from William Camden, as quoted in Chamber's Journal of Popular Literature, Science and Arts, Volume 4. By 1854, the tie between Easterling and Sterling was well-established, as Ronald Zupko quotes in his dictionary of weights.

The British numismatist Philip Grierson disagrees with the "star" etymology. The stars appeared on Norman pennies only for a single three-year issue from 1077–to 1080 (the Normans changed coin designs every three years). Grierson's proposed alternative is that sterling derives from ster[note 1], meaning 'strong' or 'stout,' by analogy with the Byzantine solidus, originally known as the solidus aureus meaning 'solid gold' or 'reliable gold.' In support of this, he cites that one of the first acts of the Normans was to restore the coinage to the consistent weight and purity it had in the days of Offa, King of Mercia. This would have been perceived as a contrast to the progressive debasement of the intervening 200 years and would therefore be a likely source for a nickname.

S.E. Ringold disputes the origin being Norman, stating "that, while medieval British coins seldom copy or are copied by those of France, they have many typological connexions with the lands to the east—the Netherlands, the Baltic, Germany, and even deeper regions of central Europe."

 

The sterling alloy originated in continental Europe[12] and was being used for commerce as early as the 12th century in the area that is now northern Germany.

A piece of sterling silver dating from Henry II's reign was used as a standard in the Pyx Trial until it was deposited at the Royal Mint in 1843. It bears the royal stamp ENRI. REX ("King Henry"), but this was added later, in the reign of Henry III. The first legal definition of sterling silver appeared in 1275 when a statute of Edward I specified that 12 Troy ounces of silver for coinage should contain 11 ounces 2+1⁄4 pennyweights of silver and 17+3⁄4 pennyweights of alloy, with 20 pennyweights to the Troy ounce. This is (not precisely) equivalent to a millesimal fineness of 926.

In Colonial America, sterling silver was also used for currency and general goods. Between 1634 and 1776, some 500 silversmiths created items in the "New World," ranging from straightforward buckles to ornate Rococo coffee pots. Although silversmiths of this era were typically familiar with all precious metals, they primarily worked in sterling silver. The colonies lacked an assay office during this time (the first would be established in 1814), so American silversmiths adhered to the standard set by the London Goldsmiths Company: sterling silver consisted of 91.5–92.5% by weight silver and 8.5–7.5 wt% copper. Stamping each of their pieces with their personal maker's mark, colonial silversmiths relied upon their status to guarantee the quality and composition of their products.

Colonial silversmiths used many of the techniques developed by those in Europe. Casting was frequently the first step in manufacturing silver pieces, as silver workers would melt down sterling silver into easily manageable ingots. Occasionally, they would create small components (e.g., teapot legs) by casting silver into iron or graphite molds. Still, it was rare for an entire piece to be fabricated via casting. More commonly, a silversmith would forge an ingot into the desired shape, often hammering the thinned silver against specially shaped dies to "mass produce" simple conditions like the oval end of a spoon. The hammering occurred at room temperature and, like any cold forming process, caused work hardening of the silver, which became increasingly brittle and difficult to shape. To restore the workability, the silversmith would anneal the piece—that is, heat it to a dull red and then quench it in water—to relieve the stresses in the material and return it to a more ductile state. Hammering required more time than all other silver manufacturing processes and accounted for most labor costs. Silversmiths would then seam parts together to create complex and artistic items, sealing the gaps with a solder of 80 wt% silver and 20 wt% bronze. Finally, they would file and polish their work to remove all seams, finishing with engraving and stamping the smith's mark.

The American revolutionary Paul Revere was regarded as one of the best silversmiths from this "Golden Age of American Silver." Following the Revolutionary War, Revere acquired and used a silver rolling mill from England. Not only did the rolling mill increase his rate of production —hammering and flattening silver took most of a silversmith's time — he was able to roll and sell silver of appropriate, uniform thickness to other silversmiths. He retired a wealthy artisan, his success partly due to this strategic investment. Although he is celebrated for his beautiful hollowware, Revere made his fortune primarily on low-end goods produced by the mill, such as flatware. With the onset of the First Industrial Revolution, silversmithing declined as an artistic occupation.

From about 1840 to 1940 in the United States and Europe, sterling silver cutlery (US: 'flatware') became de rigueur when setting a proper table. There was a marked increase in the number of silver companies that emerged. The height of the silver craze was during the 50 years from 1870 to 1920. Flatware lines during this period sometimes included up to 100 different types of pieces.

 

Some countries developed systems of hallmarking silver:

• To indicate the purity of the silver alloy used in the manufacture or hand-crafting of the piece.
• To identify the silversmith or company that made the piece.
• To note the date or location of the manufacturer or tradesman.
• To reduce the amount of counterfeiting of silver items.

 

Individual eating implements often included: Ghatan Antiques.

• forks (dinner fork, salad fork, pastry fork, or shrimp fork)
• spoons (teaspoon, coffee spoon, demitasse spoon, iced teaspoon) and
• knives (dinner knife, butter spreader, cheese knife).

This was especially true during the Victorian period, when etiquette dictated that no food should be touched with one's fingers.

Serving pieces were often elaborately decorated and pierced and embellished with ivory. They could include any or all of the following:[citation needed] carving knife and fork, salad knife and fork, cold meat fork, punch ladle, soup ladle, gravy ladle, casserole-serving spoon, berry spoon, lasagna server, macaroni server, asparagus server, cucumber server, tomato server, olive spoon, cheese scoop, fish knife and fork, pastry server, petit four servers, cake knife, bonbon spoon, salt spoon, sugar sifter or caster and crumb remover with a brush.

Cutlery sets were often accompanied by tea sets, hot water pots, chocolate pots, trays and salvers, goblets, demitasse cups and saucers, liqueur cups, bouillon cups, egg cups, plates, napkin rings, water and wine pitchers and coasters, candelabra and even elaborate centerpieces.

My interest in sterling silver extended to business (paper clips, mechanical pencils, letter openers, calling card boxes, cigarette cases), to the boudoir (dresser trays, mirrors, hair and suit brushes, pill bottles, manicure sets, shoehorns, perfume bottles, powder bottles, hair clips) and even to children (cups, cutlery, rattles).

Other uses of the specific silver alloy include:

• Used as surgical and medical instruments as early as Ur, Hellenistic-era Egypt, and Rome, their use continued until primarily replaced in Western countries in the mid to late 20th century by cheaper, disposable plastic items and sharper, more durable steel ones. The alloy's natural malleability is an apparent physical advantage, but it is also naturally aseptic.[citation needed]
• Some brasswind instrument manufacturers use 92.5% sterling silver as the material for making their instruments, including the flute and saxophone. For example, some leading saxophone manufacturers such as Selmer and Yanagisawa have crafted some of their saxophones from sterling silver.
• Use as jewelry rings, bracelets, earrings, and necklaces.

 

Chemically, silver is not very reactive—it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so it does not readily form a silver oxide. However, it is attacked by standard components of atmospheric pollution: silver sulfide slowly appears as a black tarnish during exposure to airborne compounds of sulfur (byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels and some industrial processes), and low-level ozone reacts to form a silver oxide. As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing increases because other metals in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air.

The black silver sulfide (Ag2S) is among the most insoluble salts in an aqueous solution, a property exploited to separate silver ions from other positive ions.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common table salt is known to corrode silver-copper alloy, typically seen in silver salt shakers where corrosion appears around the holes in the top.

Several products have been developed to polish silver that removes sulfur from the metal without damaging or warping it. Because harsh polishing and buffing can permanently damage and devalue a piece of antique silver, valuable items are typically hand-polished to preserve the unique patinas of older articles. Techniques such as wheel polishing, typically performed by professional jewelers or silver repair companies, are reserved for extreme tarnish or corrosion.

 

Silver-gilt or gilded/gilt silver, sometimes known in American English by the French term vermeil, is silver (either pure or sterling) that has been gilded with gold. Most large objects made in goldsmithing that appear to be gold are silver-gilt; for example, most sporting trophies (including medals such as the gold medals awarded in all Olympic Games after 1912[1]) many crown jewels are silver-gilt objects.

Apart from the raw materials being much less expensive to acquire than solid gold of any karat, large silver-gilt objects are also noticeably lighter if lifted and more durable (gold is much heavier than even lead and is easily scratched and bent). For things that have intricate detail like monstrances, gilding dramatically reduces the need for cleaning and polishing and reduces the risk of damage. Ungilded silver would suffer oxidation and need frequent polishing; gold does not oxidize. The "gold" threads used in embroidered goldwork are usually also silver-gilt.

 

Silver-gilt objects have been made since ancient times across Eurasia, using various gilding techniques. The Incas in Pre-Columbian South America developed a distinctive depletion gilding technique. "Overlaying" or folding or hammering on gold foil or gold leaf is mentioned in Homer's Odyssey (Bk vi, 232),[2] and fire-gilding with mercury dates to at least the 4th century BC and was the most common method until the Early Modern period at least. However, dangerous for the workers[3] and often caused blindness among French artisans who refined the technique in the 18th century.[Ghatan Antiques] today, electroplating is the most commonly used method: it involves no mercury and is much safer. Keum-boo is a unique Korean technique of silver-gilding using depletion gilding. In China, gilt-bronze, also known as ormolu, was more common.

 

Vermeil (/ˈvɜːrmɪl/ or /vərˈmeɪ/; French: [vɛʁˈmɛj]) is an alternative for the usual term silver-gilt. It is a French word that came into use in the English language, mainly in America, in the 19th century and is rare in British English. "Vermeil" can also refer to gilt bronze an even less costly alternative construction material than silver.

The US Code of Federal Regulations 16, Part 23.5 defines vermeil thus: "An industry product may be described or marked as 'vermeil' if it consists of a base of sterling silver coated or plated on all significant surfaces with gold or a gold alloy of not less than 10-karat fineness, that is of substantial thickness and a minimum thickness throughout equivalent to two and one half (2+1⁄2) microns (or approximately 1⁄10000 of an inch) of fine gold."

 

Silver objects could be gilded at any point, not just when first made, and items regularly handled, such as toilet service sets for dressing tables or tableware, often needed regilding after a few years as the gold began to wear off. In 18th century London, two different silversmiths charged 3 shillings per ounce of silver for initial gilding and 1 shilling and 9 pence per ounce for regilding. Often only the interior of cups was gilded, perhaps from concern at the chemical compounds used to clean tarnish from silver. This is called parcel-gilt.

Fully silver-gilt items are visually indistinguishable from gold and were no doubt often thought to be solid gold. When the English Commonwealth sold the Crown Jewels of England after the execution of Charles I, they were disappointed in the medieval "Queen Edith's Crowne, formerly thought to be of massy gold, but upon trial found to be of silver-gilt," which was valued at only £16, compared to £1,110 for the "imperial crown." [10] The English Gothic Revival architect Sir George Gilbert Scott was concerned about morality. Gilding of the interior only he accepted, but with all-over gilding, "we ... reach the actual boundary of truth and falsehood; and I am convinced that if we adopt this custom, we overstep it.... why make our gift look more costly than it is? We increase its beauty, but it is at the sacrifice of truth." [11] Indeed, some Early Medieval silver-gilt Celtic brooches had compartments apparently for small lead weights to aid such deception.

 

Britannia silver is an alloy of silver containing 11 oz 10 dwt (i.e. 11½ troy oz.) silver in the pound troy, equivalent to 23⁄24, or 95.833% by weight (mass) silver, the rest usually being copper.

This standard was introduced in England by the Act of Parliament in 1697 to replace sterling silver (92.5% silver) as the obligatory standard for items of "wrought plate." [1] The lion passant gardant hallmark denoting sterling was replaced with "the figure of a woman commonly called Britannia" and the leopard's head mark of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths (in London) was replaced with a "lion's head erased."

Britannia standard silver was introduced as part of the excellent recoinage scheme of William III in 1696 when attempts were made to limit the clipping and melting of sterling silver coinage. A higher standard for wrought Plates meant that sterling silver coins could not easily be used as a source of raw material because other fine silver, which was in short supply at the time, would have to be added to bring the purity alloy up to the higher standard.

 

The waiter of 1732, with Britannia gauge mark

Britannia silver is considerably softer than sterling. After complaints from the trade, sterling silver was again authorized for use by silversmiths from 1 June 1720; Britannia silver remained an optional standard hallmarking in the United Kingdom and Ireland.

Since the hallmarking changes of 1 January 1999, Britannia silver has been denoted by the millesimal fineness hallmark 958, with the symbol of Britannia being applied optionally.

The silver bullion coins of the Royal Mint issued in 1997, known as "Britannias" for their reverse image, were minted in Britannia standard silver until 2012 when they switched to 999 pure silver.

Britannia silver should be distinguished from Britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy containing no silver.

 

Sheffield plate is a layered combination of silver and copper used for many years to produce a wide range of household articles. Almost every piece made in sterling silver was also crafted by Sheffield makers, who used this manufacturing process to have nearly identical wares at far less cost.

 

The material was accidentally invented by Thomas Boulsover, of Sheffield's Cutlers Company, in 1743. While trying to repair the handle of a customer's decorative knife, he overheated it, and the silver started to melt. When he examined the damaged handle, he noticed that the silver and copper had fused very firmly. Experiments showed that the two metals behaved as one when he tried to reshape them, even though he could see the two different layers.

Boulsover set up in business, funded by Strelley Pegge of Beauchief, and carried out further experiments in which he put a thin sheet of silver on a thick ingot of copper and heated the two together to fuse them. When the composite block was hammered or rolled to make it thinner, the two metals were reduced in thickness. Using this method, Boulsover made sheets of metal that had a thin layer of silver on the top surface and a thick layer of copper underneath. When this new material was used to make buttons, they looked and behaved like silver buttons but were a fraction of the cost.

The process and material are sometimes compared to the Japanese mokume-gane.

 

The "double sandwich" form of the Sheffield plate was developed around 1770. Used for pieces such as bowls and mugs with a visible interior, it consisted of a sheet of silver on each side of a piece of copper; early manufacturers applied a film of solder over the raw edge of copper, although such details are sporadic. Edges of early salvers were hidden by folding them over, but from about 1790, borders were applied with U-shaped lengths of silver wire to conceal the copper, which can often be felt as a lip on the underside. Towards the end of the period, solid wire was sometimes used, which can be hard to see.

 

Following the invention of German silver (60% copper, 20% nickel, and 20% zinc), around 1820, it was found that this new material also fused well with sheet silver and provided a suitable base metal for the Sheffield process. Because of its nearly silver color, German silver also revealed minor wear, or "bleeding," when Sheffield-made articles were subject to daily use and polishing. Being much harder than copper, it was used from the mid-1830s but only for pieces such as trays or cylindrical items that did not require complex shaping.

 

After about 1840, the Sheffield plate process was generally replaced with electroplating processes, such as George Elkington. Electroplating tends to produce a "brilliant" surface with a challenging color – as it consists of pure rather than sterling silver and is usually deposited more thinly. Sheffield plate continued to be used for up to 100 years for silver-plated articles subject to heavy wear, most commonly uniform buttons and tankards. During the 1840–50 period, hybrid pieces such as sugar bowls were produced, with the body being Old Sheffield and complicated small parts such as the feet and handled made from electroplate. These are rare and seldom recognized.

The Sheffield plating process is not often used today.

During the Second World War, a process analogous to Sheffield plating was used to build intercoolers for Rolls-Royce Merlin engines to overcome problems with thermal fracturing.

 

Items produced in Sheffield plate included buttons, caddy spoons, fish slices, serving utensils, candlesticks, other lighting devices, coffee, and tea sets, serving dishes and trays, tankards, and pitchers, and more oversized items such as soup tureens and hot-water urns.

 

Much Old Sheffield has seen today has been re-plated, especially items which received much use and polishing, such as candlesticks. Items seldom displayed or used, such as egg cruets or soufflé dishes, are often in excellent condition and so maybe confused with electroplate. Collectors should be aware that many designs have been reproduced in electroplate. Those from the early 1900s were the hardest to recognize since, as the original items, they seldom have a maker's mark. The way to remember the genuine article is to look for signs that it was soldered from a pre-plated metal sheet or wire rather than constructed in base metal and plated afterward. Look carefully for soldered joints, often well-disguised by the time experts.

 

The term "Sheffield Plate" is widely used by those dealing in electroplate produced in Sheffield, and most collectors prefer to use the time "Old Sheffield Plate" to identify the early fused plate product described on this page. Another misuse of the term is describing "Close Plated" ware, which was generally made in Birmingham in the first half of the 19th century. Close Plate consists of silver foil soldered onto a steel base and was used for items such as candle snuffers or cutlery requiring greater strength than fused Plate.

 

Nickel silver, Maillechort, German silver, Argentan, new silver, nickel-brass, albata, and alpaca are copper alloys with nickel and often zinc. The usual formulation is 60% copper, 20% nickel, and 20% zinc. Nickel silver does not contain the element silver. It is named for its silvery appearance, making it attractive as a cheaper and more durable substitute. Also, it is well suited for being plated with silver. A naturally occurring ore composition in China was smelted into the alloy known as paktong or baiting (白銅) ("white copper" or cupronickel). The name "German Silver" refers to the artificial recreation of the natural ore composition by German metallurgists. All modern, commercially important nickel silvers (such as those standardized under ASTM B122) contain significant amounts of zinc and are sometimes considered a subset of brass.

 

Nickel silver was first used in China, smelted from readily available unprocessed ore. During the Qing dynasty, it was "smuggled into various parts of the East Indies," even though a government ban on the export of nickel silver. It became known in the West for imported wares called baiting (Mandarin) or paktong (Cantonese) (白 銅, literally "white copper"), for which the silvery metal color was used to imitate sterling silver. According to Berthold Laufer, it was identical to khar sini, one of the seven metals recognized by Jābir ibn Hayyān.

In Europe, consequently, it was called paktong, which is about how baitong is pronounced in the Cantonese dialect. The earliest European mention of paktong occurs in the year 1597. From then until the end of the eighteenth century, there are references to it as having been exported from Canton to Europe. However, German artificial recreation of the natural paktong ore composition began to appear from about 1750 onward. In 1770, the Suhl metalworks were able to produce a similar alloy. In 1823, a German competition was held to perfect the production process: the goal was to develop an alloy that possessed the closest visual similarity to silver. The brothers Henniger in Berlin and Ernst August Geitner in Schneeberg independently achieved this goal. The manufacturer Berndorf named the trademark brand Alpacca, which became widely known in northern Europe for nickel silver. In 1830 the German process of manufacture was introduced into England, while exports of paktong from China gradually stopped. In 1832, a form of German silver was also developed in Birmingham, England.

After the modern process for the production of electroplated nickel silver was patented in 1840 by George Richards Elkington and his cousin Henry Elkington in Birmingham, the development of electroplating caused nickel silver to become widely used. It formed an ideal, strong, and bright substrate for the plating process. It was also used unplated in applications such as cutlery.

 

Nickel silver became famous as a base metal for silver-plated cutlery and other silverware, notably the electroplated wares called EPNS (electroplated nickel silver). It is used in zippers, better-quality keys, costume jewelry, and musical instruments (e.g., flutes, clarinets). It is preferred for the track in electric model railway layouts, as its oxide is conductive[citation needed]. It is widely used in the production of coins (e.g., Portuguese escudo and the former GDR marks). Its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for corrosion resistance and heating coils for high electrical resistance.

In the nineteenth century, particularly after 1868, North American Plains Indian jewelers could easily acquire sheets of German silver. They used them to cut, stamp, and cold hammer a wide range of accessories and horse gear. Presently, plains metalsmiths use German silver for pendants, pectorals, bracelets, armbands, hair plates, conchas (oval decorative plates for belts), earrings, belt buckles, necktie slides, stickpins, dush-thus, and tiaras. Nickel silver is the metal of choice among contemporary Kiowa and Pawnee metalsmiths in Oklahoma. Many of the metal fittings on modern higher-end equine harnesses and tack are nickel silver.

Early in the twentieth century, automobile manufacturers used German silver before the advent of steel sheet metal—for example, the famous Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost of 1907. After about 1920, it became widely used for pocketknife bolsters due to its machinability and corrosion resistance. Before this, the most common metal was iron.

 

Musical instruments, including the flute, saxophone, trumpet, and French horn, can be made of nickel silver. Many professional-level French horns are entirely made of nickel silver. Some saxophone manufacturers, such as Keilwerth,[18][19] offer saxophones made of nickel silver (Shadow model); these are far rarer than traditional lacquered brass saxophones. Student-level flutes and piccolos are also made of silver-plated nickel silver, although upper-level models are likely to use sterling silver. Nickel silver produces a bright and powerful sound quality; an additional benefit is that the metal is more complicated and more corrosion resistant than brass. Because of its hardness, it is used for most clarinet, flute, oboe, and similar wind instrument keys, normally silver-plated. It is used to produce the tubes (called staples) onto which oboe reeds are tied. Many parts of brass instruments are made of nickel silver, such as tubes, braces, or valve mechanisms. Trombone slides of many manufacturers offer lightweight nickel silver (LT slide) options for faster slide action and weight balance. It was used in the construction of the National tricone resophonic guitar. The guitar's frets, mandolin, banjo, bass, and related string instruments are typically nickel silver. Nickel silver is sometimes used as ornamentation on the great highland bagpipe.

 

Willem Lenssinck, Formula 1 Racing Horse

Nickel silver is also used in art. The Dutch sculptor Willem Lenssinck made several pieces from German silver. Outdoor art made from this material easily withstands all kinds of weather.

 

Counterfeiters have used nickel silver to produce coins and medallions purporting to be silver rounds, generally to trick unsuspecting buyers into paying prices based on the spot price of silver. The metal has also been used to produce counterfeit Morgan dollars.

Nickel silver fraud has included the production of replica bullion bars, marked "nickel silver" or "German silver," in weights of one troy ounce (31 g). They are sold without notification that they contain no elemental silver.

 

A candlestick is a device used to hold a candle in place. Candlesticks have a cup or a spike ("pricket") to keep the candle in place. Candlesticks are less frequently called "candleholders."

Before the proliferation of electricity, candles were carried between rooms using a chamberstick, a short candlestick with a pan to catch dripping wax.

Although electric lighting has phased out candles in much of the world, candlesticks and candelabras are still used in homes as decorative elements or add atmosphere on special occasions.

 

Candles and candlesticks are also used frequently in religious rituals and spiritual means as both functional and symbolic lights. In Jewish homes, two candles are lit to mark the beginning of the Sabbath at sundown every Friday. Hence, candlesticks are often on display. A seven-branched candelabra, known as the menorah, is the national symbol of the State of Israel, based on the candelabra used in the Temple in Jerusalem in ancient times. Another unique candelabra found in many Jewish homes is the Hanukiah, the Hanukkah menorah that holds eight candles plus an extra one for lighting the others.

Tall candlesticks and altar lamps are often found in Christian churches. At the same time, a particular set of two- and three-branched candelabras called the dikirion, and trikirion is used by Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox bishops to bless people at worship services.

 

 

 

This article is about the serving wares, the tea service. For the British band, see The Tea Set. For the Dutch band, see Tee-Set. For the Agatha Christie story, see The Harlequin Tea Set.

Not to be confused with T Set.

 

The accepted history[1] of the tea set begins in China during the Han Dynasty (206–220 BC). At this time, tea ware was made of porcelain and consisted of two styles: northern white porcelain and southern light blue porcelain. These ancient tea sets were not the creamer/sugar bowl companions that are now commonly used but were rather bowls that would hold spiced or plain tea leaves, which would then have water poured over them. The bowls were multi-purpose and used for a variety of cooking needs. In this period, tea was mainly used as a medicinal elixir, not as a daily drink for pleasure's sake.

It is believed the teapot was developed during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD). An archaeological dig turned up an ancient kiln that contained the remnants of a Yixing teapot. Yixing teapots, called Zi Sha Hu in China and Purple Sand teapots in the US, are perhaps the most famous teapots. They are named for a tiny city located in Jiangsu Province, where a specific compound of iron ore results in the unique coloration of these teapots. They were fired without a glaze and were used to steep specific types of oolong teas. Because of the porous nature of the clay, the teapot would gradually be tempered by using it for brewing one kind of tea. This seasoning was part of the reason for using Yixing teapots. In addition, artisans created fanciful pots incorporating animal shapes.

The Song Dynasty also produced exquisite ceramic teapots and tea bowls in glowing brown, black and blue glazes. A bamboo whisk beat the tea into a frothy confection highly prized by the Chinese.

 

This Chinese Yixing tea set is used to serve guests, containing the following items.

• A Yixing teapot
• A tray to trap the wasted tea/water.
• Cups to drink the tea.
• A tea tool kit contains the following: digger, funnel, needle, shuffle, tongs and vase.
• A brush to wipe the wasted tea all over the tray creates an even tea stain.
• A sieve - even if tea is poured from the pot, some tea leaf bits will still be poured out; hence a sieve will help filter out the loose bits during pouring.
• A clay animal or two. They are used for display and luck by many Chinese drinkers.

A toilet service is a set of objects for use at the dressing table. The term is usually reserved for large luxury sets from the 17th to 19th centuries, with "toilet set" used for later or simpler sets. Historically, services were made in metal, ceramics, and other materials, though male versions were generally much smaller for both men and women. The rich had services in gold, silver, or silver-gilt. The contents vary but typically include a mirror, small ewers and basins, two candlesticks, and an assortment of bowls, boxes, caskets, and other containers. One or more brushes and a pin-cushion are often included as a top to a package. The sets usually came with a custom-made traveling case, and some services were specially designed for traveling.

The toilet service was the essential item of the "dressing plate," as opposed to the table plate, and was often a gift upon marriage, sometimes augmented upon children's birth. It was usually the personal property of the wife. The morning levée was sometimes a semi-public occasion for great persons in the early modern period, and many people might see the toilet service.

 

The word toilet comes from the French toile meaning 'cloth,' and toilette ('little cloth') first came to represent the morning routine of washing, tidying hair, and shaving and making up as appropriate, from the cloth often spread on the dressing-table where this was done. This meaning entered the English language as a toilet in the 17th century; only later did the bathroom start to compete with lavatory as a euphemism for the plumbing fixture. The Oxford English Dictionary records toilet in English from 1540, first as a term for a cloth used to wrap clothes, then from 1662 (by John Evelyn) for a gold toilet service, and by 1700 for a range of related meanings (a towel, the cloth on a dressing-table, the act of using a dressing-table, and so on), but not for a lavatory, which did not come into use until the 19th century.

 

The service contents were variable, but the classical grouping had the mirror as its most significant piece, usually decorated at the top with a crest. In the 17th century, these were rectangular, usually oblongs in "portrait" format, though the Louvre mirror and the Lennoxlove service used a "landscape" format. The frame typically had a wooden framework holding the glass, over which the metal was fitted. In the 18th century, oval mirrors began to be used, and later the introduction of dressing tables with built-in mirrors was part of the decline in the fashion of the toilet service. Depictions in art, such as the Zoffany of Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, usually show that the elaborate crest at the top of the mirror has disappeared beneath the lace covers spreading to the sides, which are probably tied around it. These were used to pull over the service on its Table when it was not used or when husbands or other inconvenient visitors appeared in the dressing room.

The service usually contained two relatively small candlesticks, allowing the face to be lit from below. There may also be "hand candles", "chamber candles," or "chamber sticks", short, with a broad saucer-like base and a loop or handle. These were the last lights to be put out at night and were carried in hand. Candlestick makers (who always used casting) were treated as a specialty within silversmithing. Different workshops may make the candlesticks from the other pieces, as may any snuffers, also regarded as a specialty.

The service often contains one or a pair of ewer and basin sets for washing. There are usually many other vessels of various sizes and shapes, some covered and others not, which go by a great variety of names, and whose purpose was perhaps always undefined. A variety of brushes might be included, and sometimes a tiny bell. In the 18th century, glass and porcelain items might be mixed with silver ones. Services also might contain food plates and cutlery (usually just for one) for breakfast or snacks in the bedroom or dressing-room or when traveling. One large type of bowl is connected with oatmeal. However, this might be made into a facial or eaten as porridge (or both, with a pair). Descriptions include items such as comb-boxes, glove-trays, soap-boxes, low tazze (or "waiters"), salvers, ecuelles (small bowls with two handles), and others. The 48-piece German Schenk von Stauffenberg service (the 1740s, now Metropolitan Museum of Art) contains several items for food and drink, including a teapot, and also items for writing, such as an inkstand.

The male service was much more straightforward, typically consisting of a shaving bowl (oval, with a crescent, cut out at one side), ewer and basin, a soap-box, toothbrush holder, perhaps a tongue-scraper, and some boxes and bowls. These started later, in the 18th-century when men began to shave or have a servant do it, rather than requiring a quasi-medical barber-surgeon specialist.

 

In Mundus Muliebris, a satire on fashionable ladies published in 1700 by Mary Evelyn, the daughter of John Evelyn (or by him, or both of them), the toilet service was described. Although by no means an insider at court, Evelyn was able to see the queen's toilet service, and his diary records his admiring comments. In the poem:

A new Scene to us next presents,

The Dressing-Room, and Implements,

Of Toilet Plate Gilt, and Emboss'd,

And several other things of cost:

The Table Miroir, one Glue Pot,

One for Pomatum, and what not?

Of Washes, Unguents, and Cosmetics,

A pair of Silver Candlesticks;

Snuffers, and Snuff-dish, Boxes more,

For Powders, Patches, Waters store,

In silver Flasks or Bottles, Cups

Cover, or open to wash Chaps;...

 

In the 18th-century unique dressing tables with a fitted mirror began to be made, removing the need for the traditional centerpiece of a service. Men also had unique shaving tables, often on long legs for shaving standing up.

The full toilette did not always occur at the start of the day but might be before going out or having a formal meal. In the Zoffany portrait of Queen Charlotte above: "... Father Time appears scythe-bearing on the clock, but the face reads exactly 2.30 pm, which means that the Princes have finished their dinner (which since November 1764 they had taken at 2.00 pm) and are visiting their mother, after she has dressed (a process which began at 1.00 pm), while their governess waits in the room beyond. The queen will dine with the King at exactly 4.00 pm."

 

Earlier examples of the component pieces existed, as is clear from documentary records and stray surviving reports. Still, the toilet service as a large matching set of articles seemed to become common among the rich in the 17th century, especially the France of Louis XIV. Sets of ewers and basins such as the Lomellini Ewer and Basin were a staple of display plates well before this. Still, the many paintings of the Toilet of Venus, for example, by Rubens, show that until about 1650, even goddesses used mirrors with wooden frames. Although many were made, very few Louis XIV toilet services survive, and these are all ones that left France quickly and escaped the very effective drives at the end of Louis's reign to get the nobility to donate their plate to help pay for the ruinous Nine Years' War and War of the Spanish Succession. Exiled Huguenot silversmiths helped to spread French styles in England and elsewhere. Once established, the distinct types of pieces changed little, but their style followed general fashions in the decorative arts.

Heraldic decoration with the coat of arms of the owner was ubiquitous. This could be engraved on small cast pieces attached to the main vessel by bolts. This method made it easier to change the heraldry if a service changed hands to a different family and is used on the Lennoxlove and other services. It is clear that many benefits were mainly made up of standard designs, perhaps often available from a silversmith's stock, and often built up by taking some individual pieces from other silversmiths working with the same procedures. Molds were also lent between workshops. In the 18th-century, pattern books became important, initially primarily in French, but later in England and other countries; these supplemented earlier drawings and individual prints. The sophisticated and complicated designs of Rococo accelerated this process.

Except for heraldic animals, putti, and decorative masks, the figurative decoration was relatively unusual until the advent of porcelain or enamel in the 18th century. Still, a group of English services of the 1680s used the same plaquette designs, of uncertain origin, on the tops of round and rectangular boxes and elaborate cast and chased decoration of foliage and putti. These are a service (London 1683) once in the collection of J.P. Morgan, now in the Al Tajir collection, the Calverly service in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and another. The English Sackville service of about 1750 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) has several pieces decorated with scenes of lovers in landscapes.

A few services survive in the very different technique of Asian filigree, with scrolling filigree decoration applied to plain silver beneath or left as openwork. These are concentrated in the Hermitage Museum and Burghley House in England. They appear to come from China and India in the case of one of the Hermitage services.

In the 18th century, services continued to be made, with both the Rococo and Neoclassical styles lending themselves well to dressing plate. By the mid-century, the large service was falling somewhat out of fashion, and fewer were made. The depiction of the toilette in William Hogarth's Marriage à-la-mode: 4. The Toilette (1743), with a mirror more significant than in any surviving example, is disapproving and one of many satirical accounts and caricatures. At the same time, the development of dressing tables with integral mirrors, and porcelain vessels, represented an alternative style of toilet equipment. The silver-gilt Neoclassical service made in London in 1779, now in Sweden (illustrated at top), is a late English example, and Philippa Glanville describes the Zoffany portrait of Queen Charlotte as showing "almost the latest flourish of the silver toilet service." However, George III gave her another service a few years later.

Older services continued to be in demand, and the provenance of several surviving examples shows them being bought and sold, presumably for continued use (see the Shireburn/Norfolk service below). Several services were created from pieces by several different makers over the years, as seen from their hallmarks; for example, the Lennoxlove service contains hallmarks from some 15 years. Service in the Royal Collection was created in 1824–25 for Frederick, Duke of York, primarily using pieces a century or more old, supplemented by contemporary ones and a new case.

Porcelain services were produced from the 18th century onwards. Initially, the grandest examples were hardly less expensive than silver. What was probably Madame de Pompadour's Sèvres porcelain service of 1763 is in the Wallace Collection in London. She died the following year, and the service was perhaps incomplete and never delivered. Lacking a mirror, it has three pairs of containers and two brushes. When Maria Feodorovna, wife of the future Tsar Paul I of Russia, visited Paris in 1782 under a thin incognito as the "Comtesse du Nord," Queen Marie Antoinette gave her a Sèvres toilet service that cost 75,000 lives. However, this included decoration using gold foil, enamel, and jewels in a complicated technique.

Another essential service in Meissen porcelain with gold mounts was given to Maria Amalia of Saxony, Queen of Naples and later of Spain, by her mother Maria Josepha of Austria in 1747 to celebrate the birth of her son. A service in Vincennes porcelain with Parisian gold mounts was intended as a diplomatic gift to Constantinople in the mid-1750s but was never completed, perhaps because Franco-Turkish relations deteriorated. A casket survives in the Wallace Collection in London.

Queen Victoria's Minton porcelain service, given as a Christmas present by Prince Albert in 1853, remains on display in her dressing-room at Osbourne House.

Battersea enamel was also used for toilet items; the Royal Collection has a set of 7 rectangular "toilet boxes" from c. 1765, painted with pastoral landscapes around Rome.

Most services originally had custom traveling cases, as most owners had more than one residence. Some of these survive; the Lennoxlove service was found in its ornate "traveling chest" in the attic of Lennoxlove House in 1924, having been overlooked as the house had changed hands more than once. The Naples Meissen porcelain service, which had an unusually long way to travel from its maker in Dresden, had an individual leather case for each item.

Some services were made to be compact and easily transportable. The "necessaire" was a term for either a small decorative container for small handy tools such as scissors, tweezers, a spoon, pencil, and similar, these also called an etui, or a more extensive traveling set, initially usually concentrating on small groups of pieces for drinks such as tea and coffee, but later expanded also to include articles for the toilet, writing, sewing, and medicine. The more significant cases also became works of art in their own right, with fine inlays in brass. As a frequent traveler, Napoleon commissioned several of these.

 

The surviving piece that goes back closest to the origin of the excellent toilet set is the mirror from the service of Anne Hyde, wife of the future James II of England, which was made in Paris in 1660–61, and is now in the Louvre. This probably drew from the design of the 40-piece service, now lost, given by Louis XIV to Anne of Austria, which is usually taken to be the first of the excellent matching services; this may have been in solid gold.

Only three marked French toilet services from the reign of Louis XIV survived. Chatsworth House has a 23-piece service for Queen Mary II of England, the Museum of Scotland has the 17-piece Lennoxlove Service, and Rosenborg Castle, Copenhagen has a 17-piece service owned by a Swedish princess. A further unmarked set is now in a museum in Toledo, Ohio; this is "almost identical" to the Lennoxlove service.

Some 25 English toilet services from before 1800 survive, about half now abroad; in 2012, an expert report to the official committee granting export licenses recorded only 12 English-made metal toilet services in British collections. Knole House has an English set of 18 pieces made in 1674, the earliest English-made service. The 14 pieces in the service at Weston Park are hallmarked for 1679.

One of these, a 34-piece silver-gilt English toilet service made in 1708 and presented by her father to Maria Howard, Duchess of Norfolk, on her marriage, was granted an export license from the UK to Australia in 2012, despite objections by the Victoria and Albert Museum. Having cost around £700 in 1708 paid in installments, it was sold for £1,380,000 in 2012. It was made by the leading London silversmith Benjamin Pyne in the "plain English" style instead of the French style used by Huguenot makers. The London jewelers had bought it Rundell, Bridge & Rundell as part exchange for a new dinner service for the Duke of Norfolk in the early 19th century. It was sold to William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, adding his cipher "discreetly." 

The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford has two significant examples, the Acton toilet service (14 pieces, silver, London, 1699–1700) and the Treby toilet service (29 bits, London, Paul de Lamerie, 1724–1725), for which the bill survives, giving interesting information.

 

Lowboy and tallboy were favorite pieces of the 18th century, both in England and the United States; the lowboy was most frequently used as a dressing table, but sometimes as a side-table. It is usually made of oak, walnut, or mahogany, with the drawer fronts mounted with brass pulls and escutcheons. The more elegant examples in Queen Anne, early Georgian, and Chippendale styles often have cabriole legs, carved knees, and slipper or claw-and-ball feet. Some examples' fronts are sculpted with the scallop-shell motif beneath the center drawer.

Another term for a dressing table equipped with mirrors is vanity and is used to apply makeup and other fashion accessories.

 

In American English, a pitcher is a container with a spout used for storing and pouring liquids. In English-speaking countries outside North America, a jug is any container with a handle and a mouth and spout for liquid – American "pitchers" will be called jugs elsewhere. Generally, a pitcher also has a handle, which makes pouring easier.

Ewer is an older word for a pitcher or jug, though tending to be used for a vase-shaped pitcher, often decorated with a base and a flaring spout. The term is now unusual in informal English, describing ordinary domestic vessels. A notable ewer is America's Cup, which is awarded to the winning team of the America's Cup sailing regatta match.

 

Plastic pitcher of milk.

In modern British English, the only use of "pitcher" is when beer is sold by the pitcher in bars and restaurants, following the American style.

 

The word pitcher comes from the 13th-century Middle English word picher, which means earthen jug. The word picture is linked to the Old French word pichier, the altered version of the word bichier, meaning drinking cup.

The word's origin goes as far back to the Medieval Latin word bicarium from the Greek word βῖκος: bîkos, which meant earthen vessel. Compare with Dutch beker, German Becher, English beaker and Italian bicchiere.

 

In the typology of Greek vase shapes, jug or pitcher shapes include various types of oenochoe and the olpe.

An early mention of a pitcher occurs in the Book of Genesis when Rebekah comes to Abraham's servant bearing a vessel with water. Gideon gives empty pitchers containing lamps to three hundred men divided into three companies in the Book of Judges. In the gospels of Mark and Luke, Jesus tells two of his disciples to go into the city of Jerusalem, where they will meet a man carrying a pitcher of water (Greek: κεράμιον ὕδατος: kerámion hydatos), and instructs them to follow him to locate the upper room to be used for the Last Supper.

The pitcher of Marwan Ibn Mohammad, on display at the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo, predates the 8th century.

During the Tang dynasty, ewers fashioned from glazed earthenware bore illustrations of Persian textiles and metalwork and depicted increased cultural diversity in populated Chinese cities. Once coveted by the upper classes, ewers eventually became commonplace.

 

 

Silver-gilt or gilded/gilt silver, sometimes known in American English by the French term vermeil, is silver (either pure or sterling) that has been gilded with gold. Most large objects made in goldsmithing that appear to be gold are silver-gilt; for example, most sporting trophies (including medals such as the gold medals awarded in all Olympic Games after 1912[1]) many crown jewels are silver-gilt objects.

Apart from the raw materials being much less expensive to acquire than solid gold of any karat, large silver-gilt objects are also noticeably lighter if lifted and more durable (gold is much heavier than even lead and is easily scratched and bent). For things with intricate detail like monstrances, gilding dramatically reduces the need for cleaning and polishing and damage risk. Ungilded silver would suffer oxidation and need frequent polishing; gold does not oxidize. The "gold" threads used in embroidered goldwork are typically also silver-gilt.

 

Silver-gilt objects have been made since ancient times across Eurasia, using various gilding techniques. The Incas in Pre-Columbian South America developed a distinctive depletion gilding technique. "Overlaying" or folding or hammering on gold foil or gold leaf is mentioned in Homer's Odyssey (Bk vi, 232),[2] and fire-gilding with mercury dates to at least the 4th century BC and was the most common method until the Early Modern period at least, though dangerous for the workers and often caused blindness among French artisans who refined the technique in the 18th century.[Ghatan Antiques] Today, electroplating is the most commonly used method: it involves no mercury and is much safer. Keum-boo is a unique Korean technique of silver-gilding using depletion gilding. In China, gilt-bronze, also known as ormolu, was more common.

 

 

For other uses, see Vermeil (disambiguation).

Vermeil (/ˈvɜːrmɪl/ or /vərˈmeɪ/; French: [vɛʁˈmɛj]) is an alternative for the usual term silver-gilt. It is a French word that came into use in the English language, mainly in America, in the 19th century and is rare in British English. "Vermeil" can also refer to gilt bronze an even less costly alternative construction material than silver.

The US Code of Federal Regulations 16, Part 23.5 defines vermeil thus: "An industry product may be described or marked as 'vermeil' if it consists of a base of sterling silver coated or plated on all significant surfaces with gold or a gold alloy of not less than 10-karat fineness, that is of substantial thickness and a minimum thickness throughout equivalent to two and one half (2+1⁄2) microns (or approximately 1⁄10000 of an inch) of fine gold."

 

Silver objects could be gilded at any point, not just when first made, and items regularly handled, such as toilet service sets for dressing tables or tableware, often needed regilding after a few years as the gold began to wear off. In 18th century London, two different silversmiths charged 3 shillings per ounce of silver for initial gilding and 1 shilling and 9 pence per ounce for regilding. Often only the interior of cups was gilded, perhaps from concern at the chemical compounds used to clean tarnish from silver. This is called parcel-gilt.

Fully silver-gilt items are visually indistinguishable from gold and were no doubt often thought to be solid gold. When the English Commonwealth sold the Crown Jewels of England after the execution of Charles I, they were disappointed in the medieval "Queen Edith's Crowne, formerly thought to be of massy gold, but upon trial found to be of silver-gilt," which was valued at only £16, compared to £1,110 for the "imperial crown." The English Gothic Revival architect Sir George Gilbert Scott was concerned about morality. Gilding of the interior only he accepted, but with all-over gilding, "we ... reach the actual boundary of truth and falsehood; and I am convinced that if we adopt this custom, we overstep it.... why make our gift look more costly than it is? We increase its beauty, but it is at the sacrifice of truth." Indeed, some Early Medieval silver-gilt Celtic brooches had compartments apparently for small lead weights to aid such deception.

 

An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements, of which at least one is a metal. Unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases, an alloy will retain all-metal properties in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, flexibility, opacity, and luster. Still, it may have properties that differ from pure metals, such as increased strength or hardness. In some cases, an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the mixture imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements, such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.

A metallic bonding character defines alloys. The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications and atomic fraction for basic science studies. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), heterogeneous (composed of two or more steps), or intermetallic. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single-stage, where all metallic grains (crystals) are of the same composition) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions, forming a microstructure of different crystals within the metal).

Examples of alloys include red gold (gold and copper), white gold (gold and silver), sterling silver (silver and copper), steel or silicon steel (iron with non-metallic carbon or silicon, respectively), solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, and amalgams.

Alloys are used in various applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic titanium alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools.

 

An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from a dirty metal in that, with an alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties. In contrast, impure metals such as wrought iron are less controlled but are often considered beneficial. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals, but when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble and dissolve into the mixture. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from their constituents. A metal that usually is very soft (malleable), such as aluminum, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as copper. Although both metals are very soft and pliable, the resulting aluminum alloy will have greater strength. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron trades its excellent flexibility for the greater power of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be significantly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most valuable and common alloys in everyday use. By adding chromium to steel, its corrosion resistance can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.

Molten metal may not always mix with other elements like oil and water. For example, pure iron is almost entirely insoluble with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have a saturation point, beyond which no more of the member can be added. Iron, for example, can hold a maximum of 6.67% carbon. Although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid-state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a reliable solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. As the mixture cools, the constituents become insoluble. They may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the other. However, the insoluble elements may not separate in other alloys until after crystallization. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally.

Some alloys, such as electrum—an alloy of silver and gold—occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring iron and nickel alloys but are not native to Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, a mixture of tin and copper metals. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients because it was much more robust and challenging than its components. Steel was another standard alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct of the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass, and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur, and oxygen, which can negatively affect the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, as various aluminum, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as Incoloy, Inconel, and Hastelloy, may consist of many different elements.

An alloy is technically an impure metal, but impurities usually denote undesirable elements when referring to alloys. Such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements but are removed during processing. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium, and calcium are common impurities in aluminum alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings.

Conversely, otherwise pure metals containing unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides, especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.

 

Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its melting point and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, titanium is a powerful solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements in its liquid state. In addition, it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen. This increases the chance of contamination from any contacting surface and must be melted in vacuum induction-heating and special, water-cooled copper crucibles. However, some metals and solutes, such as iron and carbon, have very high melting points and were impossible for ancient people to melt. Thus, alloying (in particular, interstitial alloying) may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state, such as found in a blast furnace to make pig iron (liquid-gas), nitriding, carbonitriding, or other forms of case hardening (solid-gas), or the cementation process used to make blister steel (solid-gas). It may also be done with one, more, or all of the constituents in the solid-state, such as found in ancient methods of pattern welding (solid-solid), shear steel (solid-solid), or crucible steel production (solid-liquid), mixing the elements via solid-state diffusion.

By adding another element to a metal, differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals, stresses that often enhance their properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is more vital than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, and Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ significantly from its base element. Still, engineering properties such as tensile strength,[5] flexibility, and shear strength may vary substantially from constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy because larger particles exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller particles exert a tensile pressure on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie, and Nakamura predicted.

Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a melting point but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases (a slush). The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus, and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus. For many alloys, there is a particular alloy proportion (in some cases more than one), called either a eutectic mixture or a peritectic composition, which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point, and no liquid/solid slush transition.

 

Alloying elements are added to a base metal to induce hardness, toughness, flexibility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work-hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation by hammering, bending, extruding, et cetera, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. Otherwise, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened by some heat treatment method, but few respond to this to the same degree as steel. The base metal iron of the iron-carbon alloy known as steel changes the arrangement (allotropy) of the atoms of its crystal matrix at a specific temperature (usually between 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C), depending on carbon content). This allows the smaller carbon atoms to enter the crevices of the iron crystal. When this diffusion happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution in the iron, forming a particular single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the carbon can diffuse out of the iron, and it will gradually revert to its low-temperature allotrope. The carbon atoms will no longer be as soluble with the iron during slow cooling. They will be forced to precipitate from the solution, nucleating into a more concentrated form of iron carbide (Fe3C) in the spaces between the pure iron crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, as it is formed of two phases, the iron-carbon phase called cementite (or carbide) and pure iron ferrite. Such a heat treatment produces relatively mild steel. However, if the steel is cooled quickly, the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate as carbide but will be trapped within the iron crystals. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in the solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low-temperature state, leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile (more brittle).

While the high strength of steel results when diffusion and precipitation are prevented (forming martensite), most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys that depend on the distribution of alloying elements to achieve their strength. When heated to develop a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than usual during the diffusionless transformation but then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates into different crystal phases (carbide and ferrite), precipitation hardening alloys form different stages within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in the crystal structure but behave heterogeneously, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.

In 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminum, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly) and then harden over time. Wilm had been searching for a way to set aluminum alloys for use in machine-gun cartridge cases. Knowing that aluminum-copper alloys were heat-treatable to some degree, Wilm tried quenching a ternary alloy of aluminum, copper, and the addition of magnesium but was initially disappointed with the results. However, when Wilm retested it the next day, he discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature, exceeding his expectations. Although the phenomenon was not explained until 1919, duralumin was one of the first "age hardening" alloys used, becoming the primary building material for the first Zeppelins, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many industry forums, including modern aircraft construction. When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, two mechanisms can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which agency will occur. The atom exchange method usually happens when the atoms are relatively similar in size. Some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with bits of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms, respectively.

In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other. It can not successfully substitute for the different types of bit in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the particles of the crystal matrix, called the interstices. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy because the tiny carbon atoms fit into the interstices of the iron matrix.

Stainless steel is an example of interstitial and substitutional alloys because the carbon atoms fit into the crevices, but some iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.

 

Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin Argentum, derived from the Proto-Indo-European h₂erǵ: "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earth's crust in the pure, free elemental form ("native silver"), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining.

Silver has long been valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many bullion coins, sometimes alongside gold: while it is more abundant than gold, it is much less productive as a native metal. Its purity is typically measured per mile; a 94%-pure alloy is described as "0.940 fine". As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had an enduring role in most human cultures.

Other than in currency and as an investment medium (coins and bullion), silver is used in solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils (hence the term "silverware"), electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, in catalysis of chemical reactions, as a colorant in stained glass, and in specialized confectionery. Its compounds are used in photographic and X-ray film. Dilute solutions of silver nitrate, and other silver compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides (oligodynamic effect), added to bandages, wound dressings, catheters, and other medical instruments.

 

Silver is similar in physical and chemical properties to its two vertical neighbors in group 11 of the periodic Table: copper and gold. Its 47 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Kr]4d105s1, similarly to copper ([Ar]3d104s1) and gold ([Xe]4f145d106s1); group 11 is one of the few groups in the d-block which has an entirely consistent set of electron configurations. This specific electron configuration, with a single electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell, accounts for many of the particular properties of metallic silver.

Silver is a relatively soft, extraordinarily ductile, and malleable transition metal, though slightly less malleable than gold. Silver crystallizes in a face-centered cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12, where only the single 5s electron is delocalized, similarly to copper and gold. Unlike metals with incompleted shells, metallic bonds in silver lack a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver.

Silver has a brilliant, white, metallic luster that can take a high polish and is so characteristic that the name of the metal itself has become a color name. Unlike copper and gold, the energy required to excite an electron from the filled d band to the s-p conduction band in silver is large enough (around 385 kJ/mol) that it no longer corresponds to absorption in the visible region of the spectrum, but rather in the ultraviolet; hence silver is not a colored metal. Protected silver has more excellent optical reflectivity than aluminum at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm. At wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silver's reflectivity is inferior to aluminum and drops to zero near 310 nm.

Very high electrical and thermal conductivity are common to the elements in group 11. Their single s electron is free and does not interact with the filled d subshell, as such interactions (which occur in the preceding transition metals) lower electron mobility. The thermal conductivity of silver is among the highest of all materials, although the thermal conductivity of carbon (in the diamond allotrope) and superfluid helium-4 are higher. The electrical conductivity of silver is the highest of all metals, more excellent even than copper. Silver also has the lowest contact resistance of any metal. Silver is rarely used for its electrical conductivity due to its high cost. However, an exception is in radio-frequency engineering, particularly at VHF and higher frequencies, where silver plating improves electrical conductivity because those currents tend to flow on the surface of conductors rather than through the interior. During World War II in the US, 13540 tons of silver were used for the electromagnets in calutrons for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper.

Silver readily forms alloys with copper, gold, and zinc. Zinc-silver alloys with low zinc concentration may be considered face-centered cubic solid solutions of zinc in silver, as the structure of the silver is mainly unchanged. In contrast, the electron concentration rises as more zinc is added. Increasing the electron concentration further leads to body-centered cubic (electron concentration 1.5), complex cubic (1.615), and hexagonal close-packed phases (1.75).

 

Naturally occurring silver comprises two stable isotopes, 107Ag and 109Ag, with 107Ag being slightly more abundant (51.839% natural abundance). This almost equal abundance is rare in the Periodic Table. The atomic weight is 107.8682(2) you; This value is significant because silver compounds, particularly halides, are essential in gravimetric analysis. Both isotopes of silver are produced in stars via the s-process (slow neutron capture) and supernovas via the r-process (rapid neutron capture).

Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 105Ag with a half-life of 41.29 days, 111Ag with a half-life of 7.45 days, and 112Ag with a half-life of 3.13 hours. Silver has numerous nuclear isomers, the most stable being 108mAg (t1/2 = 418 years), 110mAg (t1/2 = 249.79 days) and 106mAg (t1/2 = 8.28 days). All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives of less than three minutes.

Isotopes of silver range in relative atomic mass from 92.950 u (93Ag) to 129.950 u (130Ag);[23] the primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 107Ag, is electron capture, and the direct way after is beta decay. The primary decay products before 107Ag are palladium (element 46) isotopes, and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.

The palladium isotope 107Pd decays by beta emission to 107Ag with a half-life of 6.5 million years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high-enough palladium-to-silver ratio to yield measurable variations in 107Ag abundance. Radiogenic 107Ag was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978. 107Pd–107Ag correlations observed in bodies that have been melted since the accretion of the Solar System must reflect the presence of unstable nuclides in the early Solar System.

 

Coins of the United States dollar (aside from those of the earlier Continental currency) were first minted in 1792. New coins have been produced annually, making up a valuable aspect of the United States currency system. Today, circulating coins exist in denominations of 1¢ (i.e., 1 cent or $0.01), 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, 50¢, and $1.00. Also minted are bullion (including gold, silver, and platinum) and commemorative coins. All of these are produced by the United States Mint. The coins are then sold to Federal Reserve Banks, which are responsible for putting coins into circulation and withdrawing them as demanded by the country's economy.

 

Today, four mints operate in the United States, producing billions of coins each year. The main mint is the Philadelphia Mint, circulating coinage, mint sets, and commemorative coins. The Denver Mint also has circulating coinage, mint sets, and commemoratives. The San Francisco Mint produced regular and silver proof coinage and produced circulating coinage until the 1970s. The West Point Mint produces bullion coinage (including warranties). Philadelphia and Denver have the dies used at all of the mints. The proof and mint sets are manufactured each year and contain examples of all of the year's circulating coins.

The producing mint of each coin may be easily identified, as most coins bear a mintmark. The identifying letter of the mint can be found on the front side of most coins and is often placed near the year. The Philadelphia mint issues unmarked coins. Among marked coins, Philadelphia coins bear a letter P. Denver coins bear a letter D, San Francisco coins bear a letter S, and West Point coins bear a letter W. S and W coins are rare, found in general circulation. However, S coins bearing dates before the mid-1970s are in circulation. The CC, O, C, and D mint marks were used on gold and silver coins for various periods from the mid-19th century until the early 20th century by temporary mints in Carson City, Nevada; New Orleans, Louisiana; Charlotte, North Carolina; and Dahlonega, Georgia. Most such coins that still exist are now in the hands of collectors and museums.

 

1. The mass and composition of the cent changed to the current copper-plated zinc core in 1982. Both types were minted in 1982 with no distinguishing mark. Cents minted in 1943 were struck on planchets punched from zinc-coated steel, which left the resulting edges uncoated. This caused many of these coins to rust. These "steel pennies" are not likely to be found in circulation today, as they were later intentionally removed from circulation for recycling the metal and by collectors. However, cents minted from 1944 to 1946 were made from a unique salvaged WWII brass composition to replace the steel cents. Still, they save material for the war effort and are more common in circulation than their 1943 counterparts.
2. The wheat cent was mainstream and typical during its time. Some dates are rare, but many can still be found in circulation. This is partly because, unlike the formerly silver denominations (dollar, half a dollar, quarter, and dime), the composition of the pre-1982 cent, nearly pure copper, is not so much more valuable over face value for it to be hoarded to the extreme extent of the silver denominations.
3. Nickels produced from mid-1942 through 1945 were manufactured from 56% copper, 35% silver, and 9% manganese. This allowed the saved nickel metal to be shifted to industrial production of military supplies during World War II. Few of these are still found in circulation.
4. Before 1965 and the Coinage Act of 1965, the composition of the dime, quarter, half-dollar, and dollar coins was 90% silver and 10% copper. The half-dollar continued to be minted in a 40% silver-clad composition between 1965 and 1970. Dimes and quarters from before 1965 and half-dollars from before 1971 are generally not in circulation due to being removed for their silver content.
5. In 1975 and 1976, the US Bicentennial coinage was minted. Regardless of the date of coining, each coin bears the dual date "1776-1976". The Quarter-Dollar, Half-Dollar, and Dollar coins were issued in the copper 91.67% nickel 8.33% composition for general circulation, and the government issued a six-coin Proof Set. The US Mint also published a unique three-coin set of 40% silver coins in Uncirculated and Proof.
6. Use of the half-dollar is not as widespread as that of other coins in general circulation; most Americans use dollar coins, quarters, dimes, nickels, and cents only, as these are the only coins most often found in general circulation. When found, many 50¢ coins are quickly hoarded, spent, or brought to banks. As large numbers of half dollars are typically held by banks or available to order, they are often sought after by coin roll hunters to search for silver coins, proofs, and coins not intended for circulation.
7. The Presidential Dollar series features portraits of all deceased US Presidents with four coin designs issued each year in the order of the president's inauguration date. These coins began circulating on February 15, 2007. In 2012, these coins were minted only for collectible sets because of a large stockpile.
8. The Susan B. Anthony dollar coin was minted from 1979 to 1981 and 1999. The 1999 minting was in response to Treasury supplies of the dollar becoming depleted and the inability to accelerate the minting of the Sacagawea dollars by a year. 1981 Anthony dollars can sometimes be found in circulation from proof sets that were broken open, but these dollars were not minted with the intent that they circulate.
9. Although dollar coins have not been struck for circulation since 2011, the American Innovation dollar is considered a circulation coin by the US Mint.
10. Since 2019, each American Innovation dollar coin features a different privy mark, changed annually, located just below "IN GOD WE TRUST."

 

Non-circulating bullion coins have been produced each year since 1986. They can be found in gold, silver, platinum (since 1997), and palladium (since 2017). The face value of these coins is legal as tender but does not reflect the value of the precious metal contained therein. On May 11, 2011, Utah became the first state to accept these coins as the value of the precious metal in everyday transactions. The Utah State Treasurer assigns a numerical unique metal value to these coins each week based on the spot metal prices. The bullion coin types include "S" (San Francisco, 1986-1992), "P" (Philadelphia, 1993 - 2000), and "W" (West Point, New York, 2001–present).

 

Argentium silver (initially patented in 1998) is a brand of modern tarnish-resistant silver alloys containing either 93.5% or 96% silver. Argentium alloys replace some copper (approximately 1% of the copper and other alloys are replaced with germanium) in the traditional sterling silver alloy (92.5% silver + 7.5% copper) with the metalloid germanium. Argentium's patents refer to percentages of zinc and boron present in Argentium silver. Both Argentium alloys exceed the standard required for hallmarking as sterling silver, and Argentium silver 960 meets the standard for hallmarking as Britannia silver (95.84% silver).

 

Argentium silver is the result of research by Peter Johns at the Art and Design Research Institute (ADRI), School of Art & Design, Middlesex University. The project began in 1990 with research on the effects of germanium additions to silver alloys. Germanium was discovered to impart the following properties to sterling silver:

• Firescale elimination
• High tarnish resistance
• Precipitation hardening and simple heat-hardening properties
• Increased ductility
• Increased thermal and electrical resistance (making alloys suitable for welding and laser forming)
• Environmental advantages (associated with not having to remove or plate over firescale)

Many of these properties significantly affect the traditional methods of working silver. For instance, the absence of a firescale eliminates tedious and time-consuming steps required by the silver worker using standard sterling silver. It also eliminates the need for plating the final product, which is often done on manufactured items because of the problems introduced by the firescale. Tarnish resistance is essential to both silver workers and the wearer of silver jewelry.

Argentium Silver is patented and trademarked by Argentium Silver Company, UK.

 

Ivory is a complex, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same, regardless of the species of origin. The trade-in of certain teeth and tusks other than elephants is well established and widespread; therefore, "ivory" can correctly describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest that are large enough to be carved or scrimshawed.

Besides natural ivory, ivory can also be produced synthetically, hence (unlike natural ivory) not requiring the retrieval of the material from animals. Tagua nuts can also be carved like ivory.

The trade of finished goods of ivory products has its origins in the Indus Valley. Ivory is the main product seen in abundance and was used for trading in the Harappan civilization. Finished ivory products seen in Harappan sites include kohl sticks, pins, awls, hooks, toggles, combs, game pieces, dice, inlay, and other personal ornaments.

Ivory has been valued in art or manufacturing for making a range of items from ivory carvings to false teeth, piano keys, fans, and dominoes. Elephant ivory is the most important source, but ivory from mammoth, walrus, hippopotamus, sperm whale, orca, narwhal, and warthog are also used. Elk also have two ivory teeth, which are believed to be the remnants of tusks from their ancestors.

The national and international trade in natural ivory of threatened species such as African and Asian elephants is illegal. The word ivory ultimately derives from the ancient Egyptian âb, âbu ("elephant"), through the Latin Ebor- or your.

 

The Greek and Roman civilizations practiced ivory carving to make large quantities of high-value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly things. Ivory was often used to form the white of the eyes of statues.

There is evidence of either whale or walrus ivory used by the ancient Irish. Solinus, a Roman writer in the 3rd century, claimed that the Celtic peoples in Ireland would decorate their sword-hilts with the 'teeth of beasts that swim in the sea.' Adomnan of Iona wrote a story about St Columba giving a sword decorated with carved ivory as a gift that a penitent would bring to his master so he could redeem himself from slavery.

The Syrian and North African elephant populations were reduced to extinction, probably due to the demand for ivory in the Classical world.

The Chinese have long valued ivory for both art and utilitarian objects. An early reference to the Chinese export of ivory is recorded after the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian ventured to the west to form alliances to enable the eventual free movement of Chinese goods to the west; as early as the first century BC, ivory was moved along the Northern Silk Road for consumption by western nations. Southeast Asian kingdoms included tusks of the Indian elephant in their annual tribute caravans to China. Chinese artisans carved ivory to make everything from images of deities to the pipe stems and end pieces of opium pipes.

In Japan, ivory carvings became popular in the 17th century during the Edo period. Many netsuke and kiseru, on which animals and legendary creatures were carved, and inro, on which ivory was inlaid, were inlaid made. From the mid-1800s, the new Meiji government's policy of promoting and exporting arts and crafts led to the frequent display of elaborate ivory crafts at the world's fair. The best works were admired because they were purchased by Western museums, wealthy people, and the Japanese Imperial family.

The Buddhist cultures of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, traditionally harvested ivory from their domesticated elephants. Ivory was prized for containers due to its ability to keep an airtight seal. It was also commonly carved into elaborate seals utilized by officials to "sign" documents and decrees by stamping them with their unique official seal.

In Southeast Asian countries where Muslim Malay peoples live, such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, ivory was the material of choice for making the handles of kris daggers. In the Philippines, ivory was also used to craft the faces and hands of Catholic icons and images of saints prevalent in the Santero culture.